Punctuation

Apostrophe

To indicate possession

• dodaj 's uz jedninu, množinu što se ne završava sa s i neodređene zamenice

✓ Frank's book
✓ anybody's guess
✓ The children's play area is next to the men's toilet.

• primeni samo ' posle množine koja se završava sa s

✓ Strong tea is sometimes called builders' tea.

• when a name concludes with s or z and adding 's creates pronunciation challenges, try restructuring the sentence to prevent this problem

✓ Jesus's methods were unpopular with the ruling classes / the methods of Jesus were…

• with compound nouns or when several nouns link together to express a single idea, position the apostrophe after the final element (aligning it with that particular noun)

✓ the Archbishop of Canterbury's hat
✓ my mother-in-law's dog
✓ his step-brothers' cars
✓ Lee and Herring's Fist of Fun

• refrain from using an apostrophe in 'its' when it signifies possession (this mirrors the pattern seen in his/hers/theirs)

✓ The cat has been out in the rain and its paws are muddy.
✘ The cat has been out in the rain and it's tail is wet.

• certain geographical names include an apostrophe while others lack one – this pattern cannot be anticipated and should therefore be confirmed

✓ All Souls College
✓ Earls Court
✓ St Peter's College
✓ Land's End
✓ University of St Andrews

• several street names carry an apostrophe (frequently associated with saints' names connected to neighboring churches); these likewise follow no predictable convention

✓ There is a famous pub on St Giles'.
✘ St Giles's splits into Woodstock and Banbury Roads.
✓ Christ Church is on St Aldate's.
✓ St Michael's Street is a through road for bicycles.

• incorporate apostrophes when noun phrases express spans of time (an apostrophe is fitting if you could substitute it with 'of')

✓ He took a week's holiday.
✓ You must give three months' notice.

• međutim, ne koristi apostrof u pridevskim frazama

✓ She was eight months pregnant when she went into labour.

for signaling the removal of letters in contracted expressions

• place an apostrophe where the absent letters would naturally belong, not at the point where spacing originally separated the original words

✓ I don't like cheese [=do not]
✘ I do'nt like cheese [≠do-not]
✓ He wouldn't do that.

• ne koristi apostrof kod skraćenica koje su već priznate kao samostalne reči

✓He's on the phone.
✓He had swine flu.
✘There's no vaccine for all types of 'flu.

• never apply an apostrophe to create plurals, regardless of whether the word or term is typically used in the plural or sounds awkward. Every example below simply adds s following standard English convention for pluralization

✘ Three video’s for a tenner.
✘ I trust all the MP’s.
✘ Clothes were colourful in the 1970’s.
✘ CD’s will soon be obsolete.
✘ This is a list of do’s and don’t’s.

• when something would appear unusual with an added s, consider emphasizing it through italics or enclosing it within single quotation marks for clarity

✓ subtract all the xs from the ys
✓ dot the 'i's and cross the 't's

Brackets

Okrugle zagrade (zagrade, kao što su ove)

• function as an alternative to a pair of dashes or commas surrounding a descriptive clause that isn't restrictive

✓ The library (which was built in the seventeenth century) needs to be repaired.
✓It was (as far as I could tell) the only example of its kind.

• koristi za dodavanje dodatnih podataka poput prevoda, datuma, pojašnjenja ili definicije

✓Magdalen College (founded in 1458) has a herd of deer.
✓The tactic of Blitzkrieg (which means ‘lightning war’ in German) was used in the invasion of Poland in 1939.
✓Preheat the oven to 350⁰F (180⁰C).

Square brackets [like these]

• use to wrap comments, amendments, citations or versions added by later writers or editorial staff

✓ An article referring to the restrictions placed by some airlines on the appearance of female  cabin crew stated that even footwear was proscribed [sic].
✓ I have been responsible in the real sense, that I have had the blame for everything that has gone wrong. [Laughter and cheers.]
✓ This was quoted by Brown [1940, Chicago].

Angle brackets <like these> and curly brackets {or braces, like these}

They serve technical functions – if you are unsure how to apply them, refrain from using them.

Remaining punctuation marks and bracket symbols

• place full stops/exclamation marks/question marks/quotation marks within brackets only when the entire sentence/quotation falls within brackets; in all other instances, put punctuation outside the brackets

✓ The last bus today is at 4.45 (which is earlier than usual).
✓ The last bus today is at 4.45. (That’s earlier than usual.)

Bullet points

• do not add punctuation at the end of bullet items that comprise a simple list

✓ 2012 concert performers:

● Slade
● The Smiths
● Metallica
● The Spice Girls

• when bullet items together form a complete sentence with the preceding text, put a full stop after the final point

✓ We are holding a concert in 2012, at which the following acts will perform:

● Slade
● The Smiths
● Metallica
● The Spice Girls.

• when each bullet item is itself a complete sentence, place a semicolon at the end of every point, insert 'or' or 'and' (according to the intended sense) at the end of the second-to-last point, and end the final point with a full stop

✓ These circumstances shall be acknowledged as valid grounds for absence from the final meeting of the year:

● postal staff had ceased work. This applies solely if the strike began before the meeting's date and you have not registered for email notifications;
● your non-attendance resulted from being unwell;
● you cannot be present owing to issues with public transport (supporting evidence will be required);
● a more appealing event is occurring elsewhere which you would rather go to; or
● you have secured a ticket to attend the Spice Girls live.

Colon and semicolon

• use a colon to introduce a dependent clause that flows naturally from preceding text, represents an extension rather than a fresh concept, and is contingent on the preceding independent clause

✓ During my younger years, I took two trips: to the Lake District and to Cornwall.
✓ Tea was presented as a novel beverage to Britain.

• refrain from using a colon when the two elements of your sentence are not logically related

✘ I was once thin: I need to lose weight.
✓ My desire is to be thin: I need to lose weight.
✘ We faced difficulty this time: we had previously avoided such circumstances.
✓ We faced difficulty this time: the container's cover had opened completely.
✓ This sentence comprises two sections: what appears before the colon is the first section, and what follows is the second.

• use a semicolon to join two connected portions of a sentence where neither relies logically on the other and each is capable of functioning as an independent complete sentence

✓ The job you find most satisfying is the best; the job you find most distasteful is the worst.
✓ What I now perform is far superior to anything I have done before; and the rest I shall receive is far superior to any rest I have previously known.

• substitute semicolons for commas in complicated lists or constructions when doing so will enhance clarity, particularly when the list elements themselves already contain commas

✓ Our plan is to evaluate the department's research calibre, covering its engagement in cross-departmental, cross-divisional and cross-disciplinary work; its research priorities and direction; and forthcoming obstacles and possibilities.
✓ I saw the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; the Victoria and Albert Museum, London; and the Pencil Museum, Keswick.

Comma

• place commas on either side of a non-restrictive clause (which furnishes descriptive detail but can be removed while maintaining sentence meaning) – such clauses employ only 'which' or 'who'

✓ The library, which was erected in the seventeenth century, requires restoration.
✓ The man, who ascended the tower without a safety harness, reached old age.

• do not put commas around a restrictive clause (which cannot be deleted while preserving the sentence's core message) – both 'that' and 'which' are permitted in such clauses

✓ The library which was erected in the seventeenth century requires repairs [though the library which was erected in the eighteenth century does not].
✓ The man that ascended the tower without a safety harness reached old age [whereas the other man met his end differently].
✓ He asked his friend Sam to serve as his second [not his other friends]

• place commas around a non-restrictive term or expression (which supplies extra details but may be left out without altering the meaning), and use a single comma if the non-restrictive term/expression opens the sentence

✓ Shakespeare, an exceptionally prolific author of plays, may never have lived.
✓ An exceptionally prolific author of plays, Shakespeare may never have lived.
✓ He asked Sam, his companion, to serve as his second [specifically Sam, not the Sam who is his barber].
✓ The Prime Minister, David Cameron, graduated from Brasenose.

• refrain from using a comma when a non-restrictive clause stands at the sentence's beginning

✓ The exceptionally prolific dramatist Shakespeare may never have lived.
✘ The exceptionally prolific dramatist, Shakespeare may never have lived.
✓ His companion Sam served as his second.
✘ His companion, Sam served as his second.

• place a comma after an opening adverbial word, adverbial construction or subordinate clause; or enclose it with two commas if it appears in the sentence's interior

✓ Even so, the opportunity had come and gone.
✓ The opportunity, nonetheless, had come and gone.
✓ Carrying his things in a cloth bundle, Dick Whittington journeyed to London.
✓ Dick Whittington, carrying his belongings wrapped in cloth, journeyed to London.

• avoid placing a comma immediately following a time-based adverbial modifier

✓ After playing tennis all day she was tired.
✓ Whenever she went to the cinema she ate popcorn.
✓ In 2010 the most popular game among children was hopscotch.

• place a comma to separate multiple qualitative adjectives (those that may appear in comparative/superlative form or be modified with 'very', 'quite' etc)

✓ She was a tall, slim, graceful woman with warm, tender hands.

• do not use a comma to separate multiple classifying adjectives: absolute categories which either are or are not, such as 'unique', 'English', 'black' etc (although note that stylistically these can be altered)

✓ It was an edible Italian cheese.
✓ The nineteenth-century wooden structure is illuminated at night.

• do not use a comma to separate classifying adjectives from qualitative adjectives

✓ It was a large Italian cheese with hard white coating.
✓ It was a large, smooth Italian cheese with hard, delicate white coating.

• place a comma to separate items within a list

✓ I bought apples, butter, milk and jam.
✓ We can only provide sacrifice, perseverance, hope and strength.

• note that there is generally no comma preceding the final item along with 'and'/'or', unless it is needed to resolve ambiguity – this convention is sometimes called the 'Oxford comma'.

✘ She completed Latin, German, and Science A-levels.
✓ I ordered tea and biscuits, cake and cream, and fruit.
✓ We examined Frederick the Great, Joseph and Catherine II, and Peter III.
✘ He left his estate to his loved ones, his uncle and the charity.

Dashes and hyphens (—, –, -)

m-dash (—)

• do not use it; use an n-dash instead

n-dash (–)

• use in a pair to substitute for parentheses or commas, with space on either side

✓ It was – in my judgment – the sole specimen of that sort.
✓ The archive – which was built in the eighteenth century – needs renovation.

• use alone to connect two parts of a sentence, replacing a colon

✓ The train was running late – we almost missed our meeting.

• use to combine related concepts or numerical ranges, with no spaces around it

✓ German–Polish non-aggression pact
✓ The salary is £25,000–£30,000.
✓ Radio 1 is aimed at the 18–25 age bracket.

• use between the names of joint authors/creators/performers etc to distinguish from hyphenated surnames of a single person

✓ Gilbert–Sullivan operettas
✓ Spider-Man–Iron Man team-ups

Hyphen – how should one apply a hyphen?

• within an adjectival phrase positioned before a noun

✓ the most-recent directory
✓ the importance of a superior-quality qualification is beyond question
✓ a self-inflating raft
✓ 'Examining locality in mid-twentieth-century literary work: Wuthering Heights in our community'

• within an adjectival phrase that contains a verb form functioning as an adjective

✓ the sweater was loosely-woven

• alongside prefixes only when necessary to prevent misunderstanding/mispronunciation, particularly when prefixes or letters are duplicated

✓ antediluvian societies
✓ Gifts of pre-Christian artefacts and treasures to museums
✓ The patients are re-admitted to treatment when circumstances permit.
✓ A fatty framework can also be called a pro-fatty.
✓ Unitarians and antunitarians argued in the square.
✓ The web reference for the site manager appears on the portal.

• preceding a proper name, quantity, or point in time

✓ anti-Thatcherism
✓ pre-2000 politics

• in quantities expressed using words

✓ Thirty-five is the most beloved 'random' integer.
✓ The Forty-Seven Ways

• in compass points

✓ You're heading north-west.
✓ south-by-southwest

When not to use a hyphen?

• in noun phrases

✓ World Health Organisation
✘ high-speed train

• to form a new compound noun – if it is a recognisable concept, write it as one word; if it isn't, write it as two words

✓ Computers are made up of programs
✓ Send me an email when you're able to proceed.
✘ Send me an e-mail.

• in an adjective phrase that follows a noun

✓ Her grades just managed to reach the first class.

• in an adjective phrase before a noun where the first element is an adverb ending in -ly (but any other adverbs do take a hyphen)

✓ She had a carefully honed ear for off-key music.
✓ JSON files should be well-structured documents.
✘ They were a wildly-respected organization.
✓ They were a well-respected organization.

Ellipsis (…)

• employ an ellipsis to signal that some text has been removed, usually in a quoted passage – do not place spaces around it

✓ …we shall stand on the shores…we shall hold firm…
✓ It is a truth recognized everywhere…

• square brackets are not necessary around an ellipsis

✘ […]we shall stand on the shores[…]

• employ an ellipsis to show a pause for humorous or dramatic effect – add a space after the ellipsis in this instance, since it takes the place of a comma

✓ One doesn't have to be mad to work here… but it certainly helps!

• employ an ellipsis with a space following it to show fading speech or weakening thought

✓ We could do that… or maybe…

Full stop, exclamation mark and question mark

• use one – and only one – at the conclusion of every sentence

✓ When did you leave last night?
✓ They departed at 5 o'clock.
✓ Leave right now!

• do not use a full stop in titles, even if they form a sentence, but if a title ends with an exclamation mark or question mark, include it

✓ All’s Well that Ends Well is my favourite play.
✓ ‘Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow?’ was a hit for the Shirelles.
✓ ‘Help!’ was covered by Bananarama in 1989.

• do not use a full stop if it will be preceded or followed by an ellipsis

✘ Before her was a shape. …It looked ghostly pale.

• if needed, place a question mark after an ellipsis as separate punctuation

✓ Will you…?
✓ Did she mention that…?

• use a full stop, not a question mark, at the end of an indirect question – only use a question mark for a direct question (whether in quotation marks or not)

✓ She asked whether I wanted to leave that morning.
✓ 'Do you want to leave this morning?' she asked.
✘ She asked whether I wanted to leave?

• use a full stop, not an exclamation mark, at the end of an indirect command

✓ Listen to me!
✓ She told me to listen.
✘ She told me to listen!

Quotation marks

• use single quotation marks for direct speech or a quote, and double quotation marks for direct speech or a quote within that

✓ 'I have never travelled to Spain,' he said, 'but I have been told it is described as "the jewel of southern Europe".'
use no quotation marks if the quote is displayed (ie not in line with the rest of the text)
✓ as I observed before,
Those of us who labour in the halls of
Learning understand well that our
writing strengthens our instruction…

• apply single quotation marks and regular (not italic) font to titles of incomplete works: such as short poems, brief stories, musical compositions, book chapters, journal articles

✓ Foundation contains eight sections, of which 'The Traders' is my favourite.
✓ The number-one song on the charts today is 'Hearts in Motion' by James Miller.

• Punctuation marks that form part of the quoted text must go within the quotation marks, and if the quoted material represents a complete sentence, add a final period, question mark, or exclamation mark.

• Any punctuation that does not belong to the quotation itself should appear outside the quotation marks (excluding terminal punctuation as noted above).

✓ 'Out,' said Macbeth, 'out, brief candle!'
✓ 'Out,' said Lady Macbeth, 'damn'd spot!'
✓ 'You're engaged to Florence?' I yipped, looking at him with a wild surmise.
✓ 'Tomorrow!' she said, 'Tomorrow! I love you, tomorrow!'
✘ 'The kitchen,' he said 'is the heart of the home'.
✓ 'The kitchen', he said, 'is the heart of the home.'